Oliver Cromwell died on 3 September 1658, leaving the office of Lord Protector to his son Richard. The succession was peaceful, but the political system Cromwell had headed soon began to break down.

Cromwell had been Lord Protector since December 1653. England had abolished the monarchy after the execution of Charles I in 1649. The Protectorate placed considerable authority in a single head of state. In 1657 Parliament offered Cromwell the Crown. He refused the title of king but accepted much of the revised constitutional settlement contained in the Humble Petition and Advice.

Richard Cromwell therefore inherited an established office. He could not inherit his father’s authority.

Oliver Cromwell had been a successful army commander and political leader. Richard had no comparable military career and struggled to manage Parliament and senior army officers. The competing interests that Oliver had contained became increasingly difficult to reconcile.

Richard summoned Parliament in January 1659. His government soon became caught between Parliament and the army. By May he had been forced from power, ending the Protectorate less than nine months after his father’s death.

Richard’s removal did not produce a stable replacement. The remnants of the Rump Parliament returned, while army leaders and politicians competed for authority. Little agreement remained on what form England’s government should take.

General George Monck eventually marched his army into London in February 1660. Members excluded from Parliament in 1648 were readmitted, and the Long Parliament dissolved itself. Elections followed, and the resulting Convention Parliament paved the way for Charles II’s return in May.

The Restoration also changed how Cromwell was treated. As one of those responsible for the execution of Charles I, he was condemned as a regicide. In January 1661, they exhumed his body, along with those of John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton. The bodies were subjected to a posthumous execution, and Cromwell’s head was displayed at Westminster.